Megillah 18 - How to write a Megillah?

To write a new Megillah, one must copy it, word for word, from an existing scroll. In general, this is true for all scriptures. Incidentally, if one were to write a new Megillah on Purim, copying it out of the existing scroll and pronouncing every word, he has fulfilled his obligation of listening to the Megillah reading on Purim.

But, what about the following story: Rabbi Meir went for an urgent matter, to intercalate the year, to Assya. There was no Megillah there, so he wrote it from memory and read it. Rabbi Meir was a different kind of human being. The complete Torah was always in front of his inner eye, so it is as if he wrote it by copying from a scroll. And yet, the Sages forbade writing from memory!? - in case of pressing need, it is allowed.

But what about tefillin and mezuzah that can be written from memory? This seems to contradict the rule? - Tefillin and mezuzah are known by heart by many. The scribe can write them, provided that he is certain.

Art: Jewish scribe. Jozef Israëls

Megillah 13 - What's in a name?

The names influence their bearer. Esther had another name, Hadassah (myrtle), because she was righteous. Righteous are compared to myrtle. "Esther" means "to hide" because she did not tell anybody of her Jewish origins, as Mordechai had instructed her.

Esther was a complete orphan. Her father died before her birth, and her mother died while giving birth. Mordechai, her uncle, raised her as his daughter. The word "bat" - "daughter" hints at "bait" - "house." When Esther grew up, Mordechai took her as his wife, usually referred to as house. 

Esther knew the rule that idleness acts negatively on the person's psyche. She was industrious on weekdays and did not work on Shabbat. Esther had seven maids. Since the maids would come for only one day a week, they did not notice that her behavior on Shabbat was different from weekdays and did not figure out that she was Jewish.

"And the king loved Esther more than all the women, and she won more grace than all the other virgins." This tells us that the king experienced the taste of a virgin in Esther. He could also experience the taste of a non-virgin, at will.

Two servants of Achashverosh - Bigtan and Teresh - complained between themselves. "Since the day that woman came, we never had a good night's sleep."  They had to bring drinks to the king all night long. They decided to poison the king. They spoke a rare language of Tarshish between themselves. However, they did not know that Mordechai knew that language. In fact, as a member of the Sanhedrin, he had to be fluent in seventy languages. Mordechai reported the plot to Esther. In this way, he saved the king.

Art: Mistress and Maid  by Johannes Vermeer

Megillah 11 - Computational mistake

The Megillah starts with a description of a great feast thrown by King Ahashverosh. What exactly was celebrated? - that God has abandoned the Jews and will no longer redeem them.

As predicted by Jeremiah, Jews would be redeemed from Babylon and returned to Israel after seventy years. Now, Ahashverosh made this claim: "My predecessor, Belshazzar, made the calculation but made a mistake; however, I will not make a mistake." The Talmud describes Belshazzar's calculation, how he celebrated, and how he got punished.

Ahashverosh sought to correct the previous mistake, and based on the analysis of the writing, he started counting seventy years from a different historical event. However, he celebrated in the same manner by using the Jerusalem Temple's vessels at the banquet. This started the chain of events that the Megillah describes, including the killing of Ahashverosh's wife, Vashti, who was the daughter of Belshazzar.

But Ahashveroshes's calculations seemed correct!? - He should have started from the year of the destruction of the Temple. 

Art: Frans Francken Belshazzar Feast

Megillah 10 - Can one build a private altar and bring sacrifices?

During some periods of Jewish history, one was allowed to build his personal altar and bring sacrifices on it. At other times, personal altars were forbidden.

During the forty years of travel in the wilderness, the Tabernacle had its Altar, and the sacrifices could be brought only on it and not on personal ones. Then, during the fourteen years of conquering Israel, the Tabernacle was in Gilgal. It was temporary, and although sacrifices continued there, personal altars were also allowed. This situation changed a few times until the Temple was built in Jerusalem. After that, personal altars became forbidden for all times. 

In the Temple, they have placed the Ark that was initially constructed under the direction of Moses. That Ark had no physical dimensions. If one measured from one side of the Ark to the wall of the Holy of Holies, he got ten amot. If he measured from the other side of the Ark to the opposite wall, he also got ten amot. And yet, the distance between the opposing walls of the Holy of Holies was only twenty amot total. That proves that the Ark itself miraculously took no space.

Art: The Israelites Gathering Manna in the Wilderness by Jacob Willemsz. de Wet

Taanit 31 - How to celebrate Tu B'Av

The day of Tu B'Av was celebrated as follows: the maidens of Jerusalem would go in the orchards to dance and find their future husbands.

Every girl wore a dress that she would borrow from someone else. The daughter of the King - from the daughter of the High Priest. She, in turn, borrowed from the daughter of the vice-priest. All others borrowed from each other - not to embarrass ones who did not have a beautiful dress.

Lovely girls said that "A wife is only for beauty." Those of great lineage claimed that "the wife is only for children." The good-charactered said: "A good woman, who can find her? Give her the fruits of her hands and let her deeds praise her." Each group proved their point of view with phrases from the Scriptures.

Those who lacked exceptional merit would point out that it all depends on marrying with altruistic intentions. They also added that jewelry and attractive clothing will compensate for the lack of natural beauty.

Art: A girl in a picture frame by Rembrandt

Taanit 30 - The good things of Tu B'Av

Just a few days after Tisha B'Av (ninth of the month) comes the joyous Tu B'Av (fifteen of the month.) Five good things happened on that day.

The Jews who were dying in the desert for forty years stopped dying on this day.

The prohibition to give wives to the Binyamin tribe - which resulted from the incident at Givah - was annulled on that day, and Jews were reunited.

The prohibition to go to Jerusalem, established by Yaravam ben Nevat, was removed.

The slain people of Bethar, who were killed on Tisha B'Av, were allowed to be buried. This happened on Tu B'Av, three years later. The other miracle was that the bodies did not decompose.

Art:  A Jewish Wedding by Joseph Israëls

Taanit 29 - What happened on Tisha B'Av

The five events that happened on the ninth of Av are these.

On this day, the spies came back from touring Israel. They brought a negative report, and the community cried over the seeming impossibility of conquering the Land of Israel. It was decreed that all adult male Jews of the generation would die in the desert in the upcoming forty years. The story here was that "You cried for nothing? You will have something to cry about." The Talmud calculates how the spies returned precisely on the ninth of Av.

Both the first and the second Temples were destroyed on the same calendar day, the ninth of Av. 

The city of Bethar was conquered fifty-two years after the destruction of the Second Temple. All of its inhabitants were massacred. At this time, death was decreed on the leader, Rabban Gamliel. The Roman messenger appointed to bring about Raban Gamliel's execution was a secret admirer of him. The Roman tradition was that if the messenger dies, the decree is annulled. The messenger threw himself from the roof and died, thus saving Rabban Gamliel.  The Heavenly voice announced: this Roman official has earned his share in the World to Come.

Art: The Death of Chatterton by Henry Walli

Taanit 28 - The fast of the seventeenth of Tamuz

On the seventeenth of the month of Tamuz, five bad things happened in Jewish history, and five other things happened on Tisha B'Av. Both days are commemorated by fasting. These days are three weeks apart; Lamentations hints at this by saying, "All her pursuers overtook her within the straits." What are the five bad things?

Moses broke the Tablets of the Covenant. The Talmud makes the calculation: Moses went up the Mount Sinai and got the Tablets, spent forty days learning the Torah, and came down when he heard the Jews worshiping the Golden Calf. This day was the seventeenth of Tamuz. 

Other events were: the invading Roman army breached the walls of Jerusalem; a Greek general, Apostumos, burned the Torah scroll written by Ezrah the Prophet and put idols in the Temple.

Art: The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans by David Roberts

Taanit 27 - Community standing by

The Temple service and the sacrifices were on behalf of everybody. Can people go about their business as if nothing is happening? For that reason, the appointed members of the congregation were doing "maamadot" or "standing by" - as community representatives.

Now, the whole procedure was as follows. When the appointed week for each priest group would come, they would go to the Temple. However, half of them went to the labor market in Jericho to do agricultural work, which was plentiful and provided sustenance for the priests who served in the Temple. Some say that they would change after three days so that everybody would get a chance for Temple service. There were twenty-four groups of priests in total, and thus they would serve in the Temple two weeks a year on average.

The community representative would be standing by, saying prayers, reading from the Torah, and fasting. Some were in Jerusalem, but some remained in their cities, collecting themselves in the synagogue. Each group was essential, and the sacrifices could not be brought if it was missing.

The Temple service was what assured the existence of Heaven and the Earth. What is the source for this? In the phrase, "Whereby shall I know that I will inherit Israel?" The complete conversation went like this. Abraham said, "Master of the Universe! All is well now, but if Jews sin, will you destroy them?" God said, "No." Abraham continued, "How do I know?" God said, "Take three calves and three goats, etc." This means that the merit of the sacrifices will atone." 

Art: Weaning the Calves by Rosa Bonheur

Taanit 26 - When to stop fasting?

If people were in the middle of a fast, and the rain they were asking for did fall out, they could say that it fell in their merit and stop fasting.  There are multiple opinions on this, but the story of Shmuel the HaKatan represents one extreme. (He called himself HaKatan, the Small One, although he was the most excellent sage of the generation.) 

Once, the rain fell before the daybreak. People felt tremendous, but Shmuel said it was similar to a master who said, "Give them whatever they ask, but let me not hear their voices." Another time, rain fell after the end of the fast. People felt good, but Shmuel told them it was similar to a master who said, "Wait till my servant is humbled enough and only then give him what he needs." If so, when should the rain start to be considered good, according to Shmuel? He answered, "When the prayer leader says, "Who makes the wind blow"  - and the wind blows. Then, the prayer leader says, "Who makes the rain fall," and the rain falls.

The Talmud enumerates the rules of communal worship, days of fasting, and days of feasting. When the Temple was in existence, groups of priests served on appointed weeks. Community representatives were also there, in the Temple or their cities, as if standing by their offerings. These were called "maamadot" or "standing." The saddest day of the Jewish calendar is Tisha B'Av, and the most joyful days are Tu B'Av and Yom Kippur. The following pages will give more details.

Art: The Yerres,  Rain by Gustave Caillebotte

Taanit 14 - Distresses other than drought

There was once general affliction in the Rabbi Yehudah the Prince (the grandson the compiler of the Mishnah by the same name.) Rabbi Yehudah decreed the thirteen fasts, but they were not answered, and the affliction did not stop. Rabbi Yehudah considered decreeing more fasts, but Rabbi Ami stopped him. Rabbi Ami quoted the rule, "we do not put more burden on the congregation than they can bear."

Some people dissented from Rabbi Ami and said that in his decision, he acted for personal reasons. What about the rule that Rabbi Ami quoted? They said that rule applied only to drought, but they could keep fasting for other afflictions until they were answered. 

So, did Rabbi Ami simply make a mistake? - No! There were two opinions on this in the earlier times. Rabbi Yehudah the Prince reasoned that they should not burden the community with more than they could bear. The opposing opinion said that it only applied to drought because after the time it took to go through thirteen fasts, it was already spring, and the rains would not be beneficial anyway. That is why they would stop fasting. The final, practical conclusion follows this opposing opinion. (Still, today, there are no courts that declare congregational fasts.)

Art: The Court by Jean-Louis Forain (1852-1931)

Rosh Hashanah 20 - Did they intimidate the witnesses?

As discussed in another place, because of the difference in length in the solar year and twelve lunar months, the court would occasionally add a thirteenth month to the year. In deciding which year to intercalate, the judges had to balance multiple considerations. Since a month could be twenty-nine or thirty days, you might think that here too, the judges had a leeway. However, that would be incorrect since God told Moses, "This new moon will signify the beginning of the month for you." That meant to say that the court announces the next month based on the sighting of the moon.

However, the judges could intimidate the witnesses who saw the new moon into not testifying. When they did so, the outgoing month would be extended to the length of thirty days. They were not allowed to shorten the month by telling the witnesses to testify that they did see the moon when they actually did not. To do so would be telling them to say an outright lie.

You could also argue the opposite entirely. To tell the witnesses to suppress the testimony would be an outright lie. If the moon really was out, many other people saw it too. If the court did not sanctify the New Month, it would look like a falsehood. But to tell the witnesses to testify that they saw the moon when they, in fact, did not - that was OK. Because in this case, the people would think that the witnesses were lucky and sighted the moon before others. Thus it comes out that they could shorten the month.

Art: Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon by Caspar David Friedrich

Rosh Hashanah 19 - The court sets the time

As we learned earlier, once the court (Sanhedrin) confirms the New Moon, the day becomes the first day of the month (Rosh Chodesh.) The calendar for Shabbat is different. Shabbat comes on the seventh day, and the court has no power to accelerate or delay this. By contrast, the first of the following month comes either twenty-nine or thirty days after the previous. Depending on the court's determination, the exact date for every Holiday, such as Rosh Hashanah and Passover, may change. This setting of the date will affect the dates when people can or cannot do work. It will also affect the dates when they can or cannot eat chametz and should eat matzah.

Therefore, the court would send messengers who would travel to distant lands such as Babylonia and inform the Jewish community about the date when the New Moon was declared. There were a total of six months when this knowledge was necessary. One of them was Elul - because of Rosh Hashanah that followed that month. The other was the month of Tishrei - because of Yom Kippur on the tenth day of Tishrei. Why did they have to trouble the messengers two months in a row, seeing that the month of Elul was almost always twenty-nine days, and thus the month could be calculated directly? In setting the next month, the court took the needs of the whole nation into account. Therefore, they could make the Elul month complete thirty days and delay Rosh Hashanah on rare occasions.

Art: Crescent Moon by Andrew Wyeth

Rosh Hashanah 17 - Tolerance

There are three books open on Rosh Hashanah: the wicked, the righteous, and the intermediate. The righteous are written and sealed in the book of righteous, for life. The wicked are written and sealed in the book of the wicked, for death. The intermediate people are given ten days until Yom Kippur to improve themselves. If they succeed, they are written for life and if not - for death.

This passage conceals more than it tells. There are at least four ways to understand it. That "life" and "death" refer to the spiritual state in the World to Come. That the terms "righteous" and "wicked" do not refer to what is commonly called "good" and "bad" deeds; instead, the measure of good and bad deeds is unknown to us and is unexpected. The third approach says that "life" and "death" mean that the lifespan is expanded or shortened. Another approach is that "righteous" is a person whose merits outweigh his evil deeds. 

Notwithstanding, one who does not insist on his rights, and drops the entire matter when being offended - such a person deserves that in judgment, his bad deeds are also dropped. What is the source for that? "He (God) pardons transgression and overlooks sin." The Talmud reads this as follows: "Whose transgression does He pardon? - One who overlooks sins committed against himself."

Art: Still life with three books by Van Gogh

Rosh Hashanah 16 - When is judgement?

There are four periods of judgment. On Passover, the world is judged for grain. On Shavuot, it is judged regarding the fruit of the tree. On Rosh Hashanah, all who come into this world pass before Him, following the phrase "He that fashions their hearts, understands their deeds." The reason for knowing the times of judgment is to pray with particular intensity and purpose.

However, there are other opinions: man is judged every day, man is judged every hour, and so on. Many questions come up regarding free will, the efficacy of prayer for the sick if their fate was already decided, and so on.

There are some rules that Rabbi Yitzhak related. A person is judged according to his situation at the moment and not his future deeds. Source? Ishmael was saved in the desert because of his current plight, regardless of his future evil deeds.

Further, when one calls for judgement for his fellow, he attracts undue attention to his own sins. Sources: Sarah said, "Let God judge between me and you." Next, "And Abraham came to eulogize Sarah and weep for her."

Art: The Dismissal of Hagar by Govert Flinck 

Rosh Hashanah 15 - Etrog - a tree or a vegetable?

The etrog is similar to a tree in three ways, and it is similar to a vegetable in one way. The etrog is treated as a tree fruit for the laws of orlah: for the first three years, the fruit of any tree in Israel cannot be eaten or even used. For the laws of revai: in the fourth year, the fruit is taken to Jerusalem and eaten there. For the laws of shmita: the fruits of the seventh year are free for all.

However, the etrog is like a vegetable for the laws of tithing. That is, the tithing obligation begins at the moment when it is picked. That is because, as a vegetable, the etrog keeps absorbing water and uses it for growth all the time until it is harvested. This opinion is not unanimous, and there were different practices regarding the etrog. For Rabbi Akiva, this was a practical issue. Once, he separated the tithes two times, according to two different opinions. The Talmud discusses whose opinions these were and what did his actions mean.

Art: The lemon by Edouard Manet

Rosh Hashanah 14 - Tu Bishvat

Tu Bishvat, the 15th of the month of Shvat, marks the New Year of the trees. Why is this day significant in the life of a tree? Because by then, most of the rainy days of the season have passed. In Israel, rain does not fall throughout the year but only during the rainy season, from mid-autumn through winter. These rains cause sap to rise in the trees, and the new fruits of the tree are ready to emerge.

But wait! Didn't we say that the New Year of the trees is on the first of Tishrei? Yes, and yet there is no contradiction. The Tishrei New Year is to count the number of years in the life of a tree. For the first three years, the tree is "orlah," and its fruit cannot be used. In the fourth, its fruit is taken to Jerusalem and eaten there.

By contrast, Tu Bishvat is for separating tithes. In different years, there are different kinds of tithes. There is tithe for the poor and tithe to be eaten in Jerusalem. Tu Bishvat serves as a demarkation telling the year the fruit belongs and therefore the tithe that should be taken from it.

Art: The Large Tree by Paul Gauguin

Rosh Hashanah 13 - Rosh Hashanah for vows and the question of exact measurements

Rosh Hashanah for vows also stars on the first of the month of Tishrei. But what does this mean? Imagine that one has taken a vow which prohibits her any benefit from a particular fellow. Then she should observe it for a year, until the same month and the exact date come next year. However, if she vowed "this year," then she should not derive benefit from her friend until the first of Tishrei next year. This is true even if only one day is left before the first of Tishrei. Even those people who say that one day in a year cannot be counted a year - here they will agree to one day. That is because our vower intended to cause herself some suffering, which she has achieved even in one day.

The Talmud now goes back to the discussion of tithes. The natural place for this discussion is in the Mishnah Maaser. However, the Babylonian Talmud discusses the laws of Israeli produce only incidentally.

Grain and grapes are obligated in tithes once they grow one-third of their total growth. But did the Sages know when this happened? And in general, do we need to be so meticulous? Here the answer is yes. Otherwise, these measures would make little sense. A mikvah must have at least forty se'ah of water; the amount of food to transmit ritual impurity is the size of an egg, and so on.

Art: A Basket of Grapes by Pierre Dupuis

Rosh Hashanah 12 - The laws of vegetables

We started this tractate saying that there are four beginnings of the year, and what each one appertains to. There is a new year (Rosh Hashanah) for vegetables, and it falls on the first of the month of Tishrei. What are the laws for vegetables? They relate to tithes.

In general, one has to give tithes of the grain that he collects in the land of Israel. The Sages extended this law to vegetables and obligated one to set aside tithes of vegetables before eating them. The obligation of tithes is year by year. Thus, if one picks a vegetable on the last day before Rosh Hashanah and then another after the sun goes down and it is already a new year, he must give the titles separately. He cannot give a tithe from the vegetables of one year for the next, nor the following year's tithe from this one.

(Incidentally, he cannot pick vegetables on the Rosh Hashanah day itself, so we assume that we are talking about a non-Jew he did it for him, and even that - on his own accord.)

Some more laws of the vegetables. The obligation to give tithes starts at the moment when one harvests it from the ground. However, one can still snack from them. Later, when one bundles the produce for the market to sell, one can no longer snack from it until he separates tithes. That is for the vegetables that are sold by bundles. If the vegetables are sold in baskets, the cutoff point for snacks is putting them in a basket.

Art: Vegetable Seller by Joachim Beuckelaer

Rosh Hashanah 11 - When was the world created?

The Holiday of Rosh Hashanah, or New Year, is celebrated on the first day of the seventh month. It is the day of judgment and introspection and also of the blowing of the shofar. This day also marks the creation of the world and of mankind. That is the opinion of Rabbi Eliezer. What is his proof? "God said, 'The earth shall send forth vegetation." This suggests that the land of covered with mature vegetation. Which month is that? It is the fall month of Tishrei.

Rabbi Yehoshuah interprets the same verse differently. "Earth send forth vegetation" means the land that is only beginning to bring forth vegetation, and this is the spring month of Nisan. So in his opinion, the world was created in Nisan.

Rabbi Eliezer places other events also in Tishrei. This month, Abraham and Jacob were born, Sarah, Rachel, and Hannah were remembered, and Joseph went out of the Egyptian prison. The text of Rosh Hashanah's prayers accepted today follows the opinion of Rabbi Eliezer.

Art: Country Spring by Alfred Sisley

Note to Beitzah 23 - Who was the cow of Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah?

The cow of Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah used to go out into the street on Shabbat with a colorful strip between her horns. Since such a strip is considered an adornment and is not something cows usually wear, the Sages disallowed such practice. On Shabbat, carrying in public areas is forbidden. However, Rabbi Elazar ben Azariah permitted it. Who was this cow?

This cow was a reincarnation of the wife of Korach. In her previous life, she advised Korach to start a fight with Moses. She also suggested the argument: bring a tallit made of tzitzit blew threads and ask Moses if it needs additional tzitzit threads at its four corners. The question meant that all the Jews were holy, and Moses was not required as a leader.

The word for "corners" sounds similar and is related to the word "horns." Now, as a cow, she was wearing this noticeable strip between her horns.

Art: Jehan Georges Vibert - The Reprimand

Beitzah 19 - Cooking and eating the sacrifices

On Holiday (Yom Tov), one is allowed to cook. In this, Holidays are different from Shabbat, when cooking is not allowed. Since peace offerings are cooked and eaten, one can bring peace offerings on a Holiday. By contrast, the burnt offering is consumed entirely by fire on the Altar, and no part is eaten. Because it lacks the permission to eat, it should not be brought on Holidays. That is the opinion of Beit Shammai. 

However, Beit Hillel allows bringing even burnt offerings on Holiday. What is their logic? The Torah said, "You will celebrate to God." Whatever sacrifices are needed, you will bring them. It has nothing to do with the permission to cook on Holiday.

This seems like a simple disagreement. It becomes complicated because each view changes to which of the three Holidays it is applicable, before the Holiday or after, and so on.

Art: Young Woman in the Kitchen  by Andres Commodi

Sukkah 52 - The nature of evil

The Talmud uses the following verse as the basis for separating men from women in the synagogue: "And the land shall mourn separately, the House of David and their wives." It then reasons: if in mourning they are separate, then on all other occasions, how much more so.

Then it wants to know, who do they mourn? Some say that it is the Messiah, the son of Joseph, who will come first before the Messiah son of David and be killed in battle. Others say that it is the desire to do evil that God will slaughter in the future. But if so, why mourn? - The righteous will cry when they recall how hard it was not to do evil - and they withstood. The unrighteous will cry at the thought that the evil was so easy to resist - and they did not.

Abbaye saw a man and a woman planning to go on the road early in the morning, and he decided to follow them and stop them from wrongdoing. After three miles, they parted with the words, "Nice travel, but short." Abbaye was upset because he knew that he would not resist wrongdoing in the same situation. A Sage came and consoled him with a rule: whoever is greater than his fellow, his desire to do wrong is stronger than that of his fellow.

What is the nature of evil? Is it external to a person or part of his make-up? At first, it is outside, as in "The spirit of wrongdoing led them aside." But after a while, it becomes part of their in-born nature, as in "the spirit or wrongdoing is within their midst."

Art: The Artist's Parents by Rafael Soyer

Sukkah 51 - The Water-Drawing Celebration

The water-drawing celebration on Sukkot was the pinnacle of joy. Whoever did not see it never saw rejoicing in his life. 

Down from the Temple Courtyard, separated from it by fifteen steps, was the Women's Courtyard. The women sat and watched from the second tier while the priests and the Levites prepared the illumination. They had a large golden candelabra with four golden bowls on each branch. The total amount of oil used amounted to 120 log measures or about 15 gallons. The wicks were made from the worn-out belts of the priestly garments. There was not a courtyard in Jerusalem that was not illuminated from this light.

The righteous men would dance, with the torches in their hands, and sing songs and praises. The Levites came with their harps, lyres, cymbal, trumpets, and countless other instruments. There was a song for each step going down.

When they finally reached the gate, they would turn their faces towards the Temple Courtyards. Then they said, "Our forefathers turned their backs toward the Sanctuary and worshipped the sun, but as for us - our eyes are toward God (Yah)."

Art: David Playing the Harp by Jan de Bray

Sukkah 50 - Which is the essential part, vocal or instrumental?

The flute was played in the Temple during the nights of Sukkot. It served as a musical accompaniment before the drawing of the water for libation. Since it was not played on Shabbat or Festivals, sometimes it worked out to five days of flute playing and sometimes six.

But why was it not played on Shabbat? Indeed, there is an opinion that it was played on Shabbat. It all depends on whether the instrumental part is essential - and then flute music qualifies as Temple service, which should be done on Shabbat. Or whether the vocal part is essential - and then the flute is not played on Shabbat.

If we believe that the essence of the Temple musical service is instrumental, we can derive other laws from it. For example, the flute used in Moses' times was made of wood (based on the assumption that the wooden flute has the sweetest sound).  From here, it follows that all service vessels, such as the menorah, can be made of wood. Others would argue that the flute of Moses had to be made of wood and could not be made of metal. They say that you cannot take a situation where you are forced to do something and derive that you have to do it in other situations. Which logic is more correct? It is one of the unresolved questions in the Talmud.

Art: Boy playing the Flute by Judith Leyster

Sukkah 49 - Uncovered water

The mitzvah of the water libation was done in the following manner. There was a golden vessel with a capacity of three lugin (between half a liter to a liter), which they filled from a freshwater spring outside of the Old City of Jerusalem. They would blow the trumpets and pour the wine into its bowl and the water into its bowl. The water bowl had a thinner spout so that both water and wine would pour out in the same amount of time.

The bowls were situated at the left corner of the Altar going up, and the wine was poured from there into the deep ducts. The priest would go down into the ducts once in seventy years, bring up the congealed wine, and burn it. Others say that the ducts were there from the beginning of creation, and no cleaning was needed. The hint to this is in the Song of Song, "Your concealed thighs are the work of a master craftsman." From here, Talmud learns that Torah study and good deeds are to be done in private.

The water used for libation cannot stay overnight and cannot be left uncovered. In general, uncovered water should not be used because snakes may drink from it. Here, even using a filter would not help because of the idea that if you would not present something to a ruler, you would, of course, not do it for God.

Art: The Art of Painting (detail) by Johannes Vermeer

Sukkah 48 - A quick repartee

Earlier, we said that many mitzvot on Sukkot last for seven or even eight days. For example, rejoicing goes on for eight days, and it is expressed with thanksgiving prayers (Hallel), eating (ideally, sacrifices), and drinking. The source for this is the phrase, "And you will be only happy." There is a rule that the word "only" comes to emphasize something at the expense of the other. What is it? - The eighth night of the festival is included in the joy of the previous seven days.

A certain heretic whose name was Sasson (rejoicing) said to Rabbi Abahu, "In the future, the Jewish nation will be drawing water for me." He quoted the phrase from Isaiah, "You will draw water with rejoicing (Sasson)."

Rabbi Abahu answers, "If it said, for Sasson, you may be right. But since it says with Sasson, the skin of that person (you) will be made into a flask and be used for water drawing."

Art: Still Life with Four Stone Bottles, Flask and White Cup by Van Gogh

Sukkah 47 - Pezer Keshev

There are seven days in the Holiday of Sukkot, and day number eight is also a Holiday, called "The eighth day," or Shemini Atzeret. There are many reasons why the eighth day continues the first seven. There are also many reasons why it doesn't.

The conclusion, however, is that the eighth day is an independent Holiday, for six reasons, abbreviated as "Pezer Keshev."

P (payis) - lottery. During the previous seven days, the priests had a rotation system to allow every priest to bring a bull sacrifice - because the sacrifices were numerous. On day number eight, they would return to drawing lots for the right to perform the sacrifice.

Z (zman) - time. A new time blessing, "Thank you for allowing us to live to this time," was said.

R (regel) - festival. It is a different festival when one does not dwell in a sukkah.

K (korban) - sacrifice. The sacrifices for this day were different from Sukkot and fewer in number.

Sh (shirah) - song. The Levites sang a different song.

V (brachah) - blessing. The Holiday is mentioned by a different name in the prayers. Some say this refers to a special blessing for the king that the people said to commemorate King Solomon, whom the people blessed on the eighth day of the First Temple.

Art: The Queen of Sheba Meeting with Solomon by Piero della Francesca

Sukkah 46 - A full cup

Rabbi Zeira said, "Observe how human properties differ from God's. In the human world, an empty cup can receive liquid, but a full one cannot. But in the spiritual world, only a person who already has a certain measure of Torah knowledge in him - only he can receive more." What is the proof? The Torah said, "And it will be that if you listen, then you will listen." That is, if you listened before, then you will listen more.

A young child can acquire things but cannot legally give them to others. This is due to a combination of Torah law and later decrees. Therefore, one should not give the lulav to a young child on the first day of Sukkot before he has fulfilled the mitzvah of the lulav himself. Otherwise, the child may acquire the lulav but will be unable to legally give it back. As a result, the father will be doing the mitzvah with a lulav that does not belong to him, and one must own the lulav.

Art: A Cup of Water and a Rose by Francisco de Zurbarán

Sukkah 45 - Willow (aravah)

As we mentioned earlier, the willow (aravah) was a special law taught to Moses on Sinai but never written down in the Torah. Nevertheless, it has many details. What are they?

There was a low-lying place near Jerusalem called Motza. It had many willows there, and the court agents would gather willow branches (aravah.) The priest would stand the willow branches at the sides of the Altar, and their tips would bend over the top of the Altar. They would also blow trumpets as a sign of joy. 

On the first six days of the Holiday, they would circle the Altar once and say, "Please, God, save us! Please, God, bring us success!" On the seventh day, they circled around the Altar seven times. When they were leaving, they said, "We prepared this beauty for you, Altar!"

On the seventh day, the adults would grab the lulav from the children and grab and eat the etrogs. The children did not mind because it was a sign of joy. Others translate this phrase differently: the children were throwing the lulav down and eating the etrogs. The intent was the same - to show the joy of completing the mitzvah.

Art: Still Life with Lemon and Cut Glass, Mariretha van Os

Sukkah 44 - Ten saplings, willow, and water

Ten saplings, willow, and water are laws never written down in the Torah, representing rules taught to Moses on Sinai. What do they mean?

Every seventh year in Israel, there is Shmita – no plowing or harvesting is allowed (there are different opinions on how it applies nowadays). Moreover, one should stop plowing his field thirty days before Shmita. Ten saplings, however, are an exception. If his field has ten saplings per 2,500 square feet, he can continue plowing until the beginning of Shmita because the saplings will die without this plowing.

As we explained before, the willow branch (aravah) was waved only by the priests in the Temple.

The water libation was performed on all seven days of Sukkot. It accompanied the morning sacrifice in the Temple. Usually, wine was poured during the sacrifice, and the Levites would start a song. But on Sukkot, the water was poured in addition to that, and it generated unheard of excitement.

Art: The Harvesters by Pieter Bruegel the Elder

Sukkah 43 - How many days?

Sometimes, the Talmud enumerates various possibilities of the Holidays falling on different days of the week and the resulting count of the mitzvot for the Holiday. For example, the mitzvah of the Sukkot bunch (lulav) could be done for either six or seven days. How so? Since the Holiday of Sukkot lasts for seven days, there invariably will be a Shabbat during Sukkot. However, when this Shabbat coincides with the first day of Sukkot, they would wave the lulav on that day, even on Shabbat. In other cases, the mitzvah of lulav would be done for only six days. And again, this was only when the Temple was standing. Today, people never wave the lulav on Shabbat.

In addition to the lulav, which is waved by every Israelite, there was a separate willow branch (aravah) that only the priests were required to take. With this aravah in their hands, they would circle the Altar. This aravah is special in that it is not mentioned explicitly in the Torah. There were always schools that taught that whatever is not mentioned explicitly in the Torah but is taught from teacher to student is not true. To emphasize that the aravah was true, it was allowed even on Shabbat, when this Shabbat coincided with the last day of Sukkot.

Art: Pollard Willows and Setting Sun by Vincent van Gogh

Sukkah 42 - The love for the lulav

Every day during Sukkot, one should take the Sukkot bunch and wave it. Shabbat is an exception: if one carries it to a Sage to learn the details, he will violate Shabbat, so there is a decree not to touch it at all.

That is today. However, in the time of the Temple, they would take their lulav (that's how the bunch is called for short, by the name of the most prominent species) even on Shabbat. To accomplish it, they would bring it to the synagogue before the Holiday, and in the morning, each would recognize his lulav and take it into his hands. In fact, the people of Jerusalem would never put the lulav down, all the time that it was possible, out of their love for the mitzvah.

After one has waved his lulav, he can put it back into the vase, which is not prohibited because of the law of Shabbat or Holiday. When a child can wave a lulav, he should be taught to do it. In fact, a child is gradually taught to do a mitzvah once he is ready. When he knows how to talk, the father should teach him Torah. What phrase should he teach first? "The Torah that Moses commanded is the heritage of the congregation of Jacob."

Art: Interior of the Portuguese Synagogue in Amsterdam by Emanuel de Witte

Sukkah 32

The Sukkot bundle includes the following species: citron, palm, myrtle, and willow. Each student saw his teacher doing this, and the Talmud had no doubt about the species. Even though it was therefore known by tradition, the Talmud tries to derive the exact specification from the words of the Torah. For example, could one use clusters of dates (palm fruit) instead of palm branches and wave these? In every case, it confirms the species using the spelling of the species name or the idea that it should be nice and beautiful and cannot be poisoned or prickly.

The myrtle twig (hadas) has the same requirements as the lulav: it cannot be stolen or dried out. The myrtle has a plaited (braided) appearance, and it should maintain its looks. If leaves fall off it and it loses its looks, it is invalid. It may also have berries growing it, which is OK. However, if the berries outnumber the leaves, it is invalid. One can take the berries off, and it will become valid again. However, taking the berries off is not allowed on the Holiday itself because it "fixes" the myrtle and makes it valid. What if one went ahead nevertheless and took the berries off on the Holiday? Can it now be used? The reader is invited to advance arguments for and against.

Art: Myrtle in a lobed-footed vase by Tomas Hiepes

Sukkah 31 - Stolen sukkah

Having just discussed performing the mitzvah with a stolen branch, let us think of what happens when one steals the sukkah of his fellow and dwells in it. Does that mitzvah count for him? 

How does one steal the sukkah? He does it by evicting his fellow out of it and then sitting there. Alternatively, he can build his sukkah on public land, thus stealing it from the public.

The land is different from movable objects because usually, we say that it cannot be stolen. Someone may occupy it, but the owner still hopes to eventually get it back, so effectively, one does not steal the land but squats on it. Rabbi Eliezer says that the mitzvah does not count because the sukkah should belong to you, just as the lulav. The Sages argue and say that there is no requirement that the sukkah belongs to you; you can sit in the sukkah of your fellow.

This is different from stealing the wood to make the sukkah. A certain elderly lady came to Rav Nachman and said that a group of powerful people stole her wood and are sitting in a stolen sukkah. He told her that all she can claim is the cost of the wood but that the sukkah is theirs. This has to do with another law. If one steals a beam and builds it into his house, there is an additional enactment that he does not have to return the beam because it would mean destroying the house. This was enacted to benefit the people who would repent and want to return the stolen goods - but not destroy the house. Now, this enactment worked against the lady. Rav Nachman told the students, "She is just a crier."

Art: Opportunity makes the thief by Paul-Charles Chocarne-More

Sukkah 30 - Good deed performed through a bad one

On Sukkot, people must wave a bunch of branches. One of these is a palm branch (lulav.) However, if he stole his lulav, it is not kosher, and he has not fulfilled his obligation.

Why is that? Since the Torah said, "You shall take for yourself, on the first day of Sukkot holiday, palms tree branches," they should belong to yourself. And stolen branch does not belong to the thief. However,  this only resolves the matter for the first day. What about the second day?

Rabbi Shimon, the author of the Zohar, gives the rule: it would be a good deed brought about through transgression, which is not valid. But why is this so? Why not say that the end justifies the means? It is because of this: "You bring the stolen, the lame, and the sick animal - shall I accept it?" Just as lame cannot be fixed, so stolen is forever disqualified. 

But let's analyze this further. The thief steals the goods. The owner has not given up and hopes to get them back. At this time, the object does not belong to the owner, and a mitzvah that should be done with one's own object is invalid. But later, when the owner despairs, the object belongs to the thief! And yet, Rabbi Shimon declares it invalid. This tells us that one cannot do a good deed through transgression.

This opinion is not unanimous. Shmuel disagrees and says that it depends on the situation. He says that just as you can borrow a lulav and thus make it yours for performing the commandment, so is the stolen lulav valid starting from the second day of Sukkot and later.

Art:  The Cunning Thief by Paul-Charles Chocarne-Moreau

Sukkah 29 - Permanent temporary dwelling

The sukkah is intended as a temporary dwelling: it is shaky and not too strong; it lets in sun and rain. However, its residents must behave as if it were their permanent home for the seven days of the festival. How do they show it? If he has nice vessels, he should bring them to the sukkah. Nice clothing? - Bring them to the sukkah. In general, he should eat, drink, and relax in the sukkah.

One cannot deny, however, that sukkah is not conducive to deep concentration. Where should he study, inside or outside? For things that are easy or already understood - he can review them in the sukkah. For hard things, he can go learn them at home.

If it begins to rain, he should persist. However, once there is enough rain to cause discomfort, he can leave. What is called discomfort? When his porridge is ruined because of the rain. 

When we are all ready for the sukkah and it rains - what can this be compared to? To a slave who came to pour wine for his master (and wine was usually diluted with water,) but the master took this water and poured it in his face.

Art: The drunk violinist by Gerrit van Honthorst

Sukkah 28 - All Israel can use one sukkah

Another mitzvah of Sukkot is "waving the branches" - the palm branches, citron, and so on. One should own them at the time of waving because the requirement is "take for yourself." Could it be that one should own the sukkah as well? - No, all Israelites can sit in one sukkah because it says, "All the natives in Israel will sit in a Sukkah," that is, they can sit in one sukkah.

The sukkah should be big enough to contain his head and most of the body, but the table can stay outside. The School of Shammai disagrees: the table must be inside, or else he might be drawn after it and eat outside the sukkah. Now they bring evidence. The Sages from both schools once visited Rabbi Yochanan ben HaChoranit and found him sitting in a sukkah with the table outside and said nothing. But they disagree about this evidence: the School of Shammai says that the Sages spoke up and told him, "If this is how you always conducted yourself, you never fulfilled this mitzvah in your life!'

Art: The Palm by Pierre-Auguste Renoir

Sukkah 27 - Fourteen obligatory meals in the Sukkah

One must eat fourteen meals in the Sukkah during the seven days of the Holiday, one during the day and one in the evening. This is the opinion of Rabbi Eliezer. What is his logic? One should live in the Sukkah like at home, and just as at home, he eats a day meal and an evening meal; he must do the same in the Sukkah.

The Sages disagree: only the first evening meal is obligatory. What is their logic? Don't they agree that he should live in the Sukkah? Yes, they agree, but their logic is different: just as at home, eating is not obligatory but is his choice, so in the Sukkah, he is not obligated to eat. But if so, why is the first meal required? - They compare Sukkot to Pesach. Just as Pesach starts on the fifteenth of the month and the first meal - matzah - is required, Sukkot also starts on the fifteenth, and the first meal is required.

Furthermore, Rabbi Eliezer said that if one missed the first meal in the Sukkah, he can compensate it by eating another meal, and even on the Holiday right after Sukkot, which is called Shemini Atzeret, the Eighth-day Holiday. But how could Rabbi Eliezer say that - one is not allowed to sit in the Sukkah for an extra day! - By then, Rabbi Eliezer changed his mind. He agrees that fourteen meals are not required, and now he argues that one can fulfill his obligation after Sukkot, just as it is true on the eighth day of Passover.

The Prayer Before the Meal by Jan Steen

Sukkah 26 - A guarantor needs another guarantor in turn

Someone who is sick is exempt from the obligation of a sukkah: he does not have to sleep there, and he does not have to eat there. Even his attendants can go out of the sukkah and sleep outside. One who feels discomfort - such as the smell of the floor - is not obligated to be in the sukkah. If so, why did we have to mention the sick person? Surely, the sick is uncomfortable. The difference is that the sick can take his attendants with him, but it does not apply to the attendants of an uncomfortable person. 

One can eat a light snack outside the sukkah but not take a catnap. But with tefillin, catnap is allowed; what is the difference? Is it because he can appoint an overseer who will wake him up? Rav Mesharshia objected: that's not an explanation - guarantor needs his own guarantor, and your overseer may fall asleep as well! Rather, one should not nap outside the sukkah because even a nap refreshes him and counts as sleep. With tefillin, the concern is that he should not pass gas, and that won't happen while catnapping.

Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai was extra strict with himself and ate and drank even small amounts only in the sukkah. Nevertheless, this kind of strictness is permitted and is not considered presumptuous.

Art: The Sick Child by J. Bond Francisco

Shabbat 100

Shabbat 99

Shabbat 98

Shabbat 97

Shabbat 96

Shabbat 95

Shabbat 93

Shabbat 91 - Storing food, and then carrying it

Previously, we learned that one should not carry food on Shabbat in the street. We also detailed the amount of food one must carry to incur liability, depending on the type of food.

Now, if he first stores food in a designated place, then his action shows that this stored amount is significant in his eyes. Then, he is liable for even a smaller amount of food if he carries it. Let's see the details.

If one stores a minute amount of seed for planting, or as a sample to show to prospective customers, or to use as medicine - and then he carries it to the street on Shabbat, he is liable. All other people, however, are only liable for standard amounts.

If he (the one who stored the grain) decides against planting, the seed loses the importance he attached to it. If he carries it back, he is only liable for the standard amounts.

A dissenting opinion: Rabbi Shimon ben Elazar says that once the first person stores the food intending it for planting, anyone else becomes liable if he carries this amount. Thus, the thought of the first one made the second one liable.

Art: Sower With Setting Sun - Vincent van Gogh

Shabbat 92

Shabbat 5

Shabbat 2 - From the house to the street

On Shabbat, one should not take things from his house into the street and vice versa. This is one of the thirty-nine "labors" prohibited on Shabbat.

At first glance, it seems strange and hard to find in the Torah. However, "and the people were restrained from bringing more" refers to this. The people were not allowed to carry from their private domain into a public one, and it happened on Yom Kippur, which has the same laws as Shabbat.

For example, if a poor man is standing outside a house and a householder is inside - and if the poor man extends his hand with an object and places it into the hand of a householder - the poor man is liable for bringing the object in on Shabbat. Similarly, the poor man should not take objects out of the house.

Thus, there are two prohibited acts that the man can do while standing outside. However, if the poor man extends his hand inside, but now the householder takes the basket from him - since the poor man performed only half of the act - he has not violated Shabbat. The Sages prohibited it, nevertheless, to prevent him from doing a complete act.

Thus, the rule is that "there are two ways to violate Shabbat, which are really four" - two more were added by the Sages.

Art: Pittoco Sitting by Giacomo Ceruti

Brachot 64 - Do Not Force Your Luck (Blessing)

The rule is that one should not force one's luck. The time to become rich or attain a position of power will come as predestined. It may be taken from you altogether if you try to force it. This happened to Absalom, the son of Kind David. Absalon tried to seize kingship from his father by force and failed.

There were two candidates to lead the Academy in Babylonia. Rav Yosef was called "Sinai" because his knowledge was broad and precise, as if it were acquired on Sinai. Rabbah was called an "uprooter of mountains" because of his supreme logic. From Israel came the advice to choose Rav Yosef because everyone needs knowledge, like wheat. But Rav Yosef declined because astrologers predicted that he would live for only two years after he became the head. During the twenty-two years that Rabbah was the head, Rav Yosef carefully avoided all signs of honor that would be due him. Ultimately, he became the head and lead for two and a half years.

Torah scholars increase peace in the world. God will give might to His nation; God will bless His nation with peace.

Art: Reconciliation of David and Absalom by Rembrandt van Rijn

Brachot 62 - Bedside Manners (Blessings)

The Talmud lists various laws of behavior in a latrine. Ben Azzai told how he once entered after Rabbi Akiva into the latrine and what three rules he learned by observing him. Rabbi Yehudah said to him: "Did you then act so brazenly towards your teacher?!" Ben Azzai replied, "His behavior is Torah, and I must study it."

Rav Kahana once hid under the bed of his teacher, Rav. He wanted to observe Rav's actual practice in fulfilling the laws of marital relations. He heard how Rav first spoke idle words with his wife, then laughed with her, and then fulfilled his marital obligations. From beneath the bed, he said, "The teacher's mouth is like one's who never tasted the dish!" Rav said to him, "Kahana, are you here?! Go out, for it is not proper (for you to be here)." Rav Kahana replied, "Your behavior is Torah, and I must study it!"

Art: In Bed by Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec

Sukkah 14 - A board on the sukkah

Normally, the sukkah is covered by s'chach made of branches that keep out most of the sun and do not leave large holes. If he places a board on top of his sukkah, many complications and disagreements arise.

Earlier, we introduced the idea of a "bent wall" ("dofen akumah.") When a part of the s'chach next to the sukkah's wall is made of material that is invalid for s'chach - such as a board - it can still be valid. You just look at this part of the s'chach as a continuation of the wall and call it a "bent wall." The result is that one cannot sleep under this part or eat under it - the normal use of s'chach - but the sukkah is valid.

Now let's go back to boards that are not next to the wall and therefore are not considered a "bent wall." If the board is wider than four handbreadths, all agree that it invalidates the sukkah. If it is narrower than three handbreadths, all agree that it is just a stick and is valid. The boards that are between three and four handbreadths are in dispute. Rabbi Yehudah says that they are OK - because any significant "place" should be at least four by four handbreadths, and they are less than that. Rabbi Meir says that any hole that is less than three handbreadths is considered "glued," following the principle of "glue," "lavud." And these boards are wider than this, so they invalidate the sukkah.

But what is wrong with the boards in the first place? It turns that the roofs at this time were made of boards four handbreadths wide. So, if one uses such boards, he may come to simply sit at home. And we want him out in the sukkah.

Art: The Tree of Crows by Caspar DavidFriedrich

Sukkah 13 - Bundles that are valid for s'chach

Earlier, we said that one who puts bundles on the top of the sukkah makes the s'chach invalid. We also explained that the s'chach must be made for Sukkot, and with bundles, there is a danger to re-use the old ones. 

However, there are many exceptions to this rule. If one uses the offshoots of the date palm, the s'chach is valid. These are bundled together by nature, not by human hands. Even if he later binds these offshoots with a rope, it is still not a bundle. They are already one, and you cannot bundle them more.

In Sura, it was the custom for the merchant to bundle the branches of s'chach to make them of a standard size. People who bought these bundles would always untie them to dry. In this case, too, there is no concern that people will keep bundles on their sukkah, and it was therefore allowed. 

The Talmud also find parallels between those bundles and the bundles of hyssop used in applying the ashes of the Red Heifer to clarify how many items constitute a bundle.

Art: Palm Tree at Bordighera by Claude Monet

Sukkah 12 - Clouds of glory

One should dwell in a sukkah because "your generations should know that I (God) made the Children of Israel live in sukkahs." Some translate the word "sukkahs" as "Clouds of Glory." They further compare it to the "mist ascending from the earth," and mist is the beginning of every cloud. Just as mist ascending from the earth cannot become ritually impure, so the s'chach material covering the sukkah must be of something that cannot become ritually impure.

Others translate the word "sukkahs" as huts. Where do they derive the ritual purity of the s'chach? - From the fact that it is made from refuse branches that cannot become impure.

If one puts bundles of branches on the top of a sukkah, he makes it invalid. But if he unties the bundles, it is valid. What is the reason for this? One might put bundles on the roof of a shed to dry them out and later decide to use it as a sukkah. If he does this, the sukkah is invalid because it should be made for the Holiday and not pre-made. Such a situation would be hard to detect visually, and this law prevents possible confusion.

Art: Tree Branches. Charles Reginald Aston