Rosh Hashanah 20 - Did they intimidate the witnesses?

As discussed in another place, because of the difference in length in the solar year and twelve lunar months, the court would occasionally add a thirteenth month to the year. In deciding which year to intercalate, the judges had to balance multiple considerations. Since a month could be twenty-nine or thirty days, you might think that here too, the judges had a leeway. However, that would be incorrect since God told Moses, "This new moon will signify the beginning of the month for you." That meant to say that the court announces the next month based on the sighting of the moon.

However, the judges could intimidate the witnesses who saw the new moon into not testifying. When they did so, the outgoing month would be extended to the length of thirty days. They were not allowed to shorten the month by telling the witnesses to testify that they did see the moon when they actually did not. To do so would be telling them to say an outright lie.

You could also argue the opposite entirely. To tell the witnesses to suppress the testimony would be an outright lie. If the moon really was out, many other people saw it too. If the court did not sanctify the New Month, it would look like a falsehood. But to tell the witnesses to testify that they saw the moon when they, in fact, did not - that was OK. Because in this case, the people would think that the witnesses were lucky and sighted the moon before others. Thus it comes out that they could shorten the month.

Art: Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon by Caspar David Friedrich

Rosh Hashanah 19 - The court sets the time

As we learned earlier, once the court (Sanhedrin) confirms the New Moon, the day becomes the first day of the month (Rosh Chodesh.) The calendar for Shabbat is different. Shabbat comes on the seventh day, and the court has no power to accelerate or delay this. By contrast, the first of the following month comes either twenty-nine or thirty days after the previous. Depending on the court's determination, the exact date for every Holiday, such as Rosh Hashanah and Passover, may change. This setting of the date will affect the dates when people can or cannot do work. It will also affect the dates when they can or cannot eat chametz and should eat matzah.

Therefore, the court would send messengers who would travel to distant lands such as Babylonia and inform the Jewish community about the date when the New Moon was declared. There were a total of six months when this knowledge was necessary. One of them was Elul - because of Rosh Hashanah that followed that month. The other was the month of Tishrei - because of Yom Kippur on the tenth day of Tishrei. Why did they have to trouble the messengers two months in a row, seeing that the month of Elul was almost always twenty-nine days, and thus the month could be calculated directly? In setting the next month, the court took the needs of the whole nation into account. Therefore, they could make the Elul month complete thirty days and delay Rosh Hashanah on rare occasions.

Art: Crescent Moon by Andrew Wyeth

Rosh Hashanah 17 - Tolerance

There are three books open on Rosh Hashanah: the wicked, the righteous, and the intermediate. The righteous are written and sealed in the book of righteous, for life. The wicked are written and sealed in the book of the wicked, for death. The intermediate people are given ten days until Yom Kippur to improve themselves. If they succeed, they are written for life and if not - for death.

This passage conceals more than it tells. There are at least four ways to understand it. That "life" and "death" refer to the spiritual state in the World to Come. That the terms "righteous" and "wicked" do not refer to what is commonly called "good" and "bad" deeds; instead, the measure of good and bad deeds is unknown to us and is unexpected. The third approach says that "life" and "death" mean that the lifespan is expanded or shortened. Another approach is that "righteous" is a person whose merits outweigh his evil deeds. 

Notwithstanding, one who does not insist on his rights, and drops the entire matter when being offended - such a person deserves that in judgment, his bad deeds are also dropped. What is the source for that? "He (God) pardons transgression and overlooks sin." The Talmud reads this as follows: "Whose transgression does He pardon? - One who overlooks sins committed against himself."

Art: Still life with three books by Van Gogh

Rosh Hashanah 16 - When is judgement?

There are four periods of judgment. On Passover, the world is judged for grain. On Shavuot, it is judged regarding the fruit of the tree. On Rosh Hashanah, all who come into this world pass before Him, following the phrase "He that fashions their hearts, understands their deeds." The reason for knowing the times of judgment is to pray with particular intensity and purpose.

However, there are other opinions: man is judged every day, man is judged every hour, and so on. Many questions come up regarding free will, the efficacy of prayer for the sick if their fate was already decided, and so on.

There are some rules that Rabbi Yitzhak related. A person is judged according to his situation at the moment and not his future deeds. Source? Ishmael was saved in the desert because of his current plight, regardless of his future evil deeds.

Further, when one calls for judgement for his fellow, he attracts undue attention to his own sins. Sources: Sarah said, "Let God judge between me and you." Next, "And Abraham came to eulogize Sarah and weep for her."

Art: The Dismissal of Hagar by Govert Flinck 

Rosh Hashanah 15 - Etrog - a tree or a vegetable?

The etrog is similar to a tree in three ways, and it is similar to a vegetable in one way. The etrog is treated as a tree fruit for the laws of orlah: for the first three years, the fruit of any tree in Israel cannot be eaten or even used. For the laws of revai: in the fourth year, the fruit is taken to Jerusalem and eaten there. For the laws of shmita: the fruits of the seventh year are free for all.

However, the etrog is like a vegetable for the laws of tithing. That is, the tithing obligation begins at the moment when it is picked. That is because, as a vegetable, the etrog keeps absorbing water and uses it for growth all the time until it is harvested. This opinion is not unanimous, and there were different practices regarding the etrog. For Rabbi Akiva, this was a practical issue. Once, he separated the tithes two times, according to two different opinions. The Talmud discusses whose opinions these were and what did his actions mean.

Art: The lemon by Edouard Manet

Rosh Hashanah 14 - Tu Bishvat

Tu Bishvat, the 15th of the month of Shvat, marks the New Year of the trees. Why is this day significant in the life of a tree? Because by then, most of the rainy days of the season have passed. In Israel, rain does not fall throughout the year but only during the rainy season, from mid-autumn through winter. These rains cause sap to rise in the trees, and the new fruits of the tree are ready to emerge.

But wait! Didn't we say that the New Year of the trees is on the first of Tishrei? Yes, and yet there is no contradiction. The Tishrei New Year is to count the number of years in the life of a tree. For the first three years, the tree is "orlah," and its fruit cannot be used. In the fourth, its fruit is taken to Jerusalem and eaten there.

By contrast, Tu Bishvat is for separating tithes. In different years, there are different kinds of tithes. There is tithe for the poor and tithe to be eaten in Jerusalem. Tu Bishvat serves as a demarkation telling the year the fruit belongs and therefore the tithe that should be taken from it.

Art: The Large Tree by Paul Gauguin

Rosh Hashanah 13 - Rosh Hashanah for vows and the question of exact measurements

Rosh Hashanah for vows also stars on the first of the month of Tishrei. But what does this mean? Imagine that one has taken a vow which prohibits her any benefit from a particular fellow. Then she should observe it for a year, until the same month and the exact date come next year. However, if she vowed "this year," then she should not derive benefit from her friend until the first of Tishrei next year. This is true even if only one day is left before the first of Tishrei. Even those people who say that one day in a year cannot be counted a year - here they will agree to one day. That is because our vower intended to cause herself some suffering, which she has achieved even in one day.

The Talmud now goes back to the discussion of tithes. The natural place for this discussion is in the Mishnah Maaser. However, the Babylonian Talmud discusses the laws of Israeli produce only incidentally.

Grain and grapes are obligated in tithes once they grow one-third of their total growth. But did the Sages know when this happened? And in general, do we need to be so meticulous? Here the answer is yes. Otherwise, these measures would make little sense. A mikvah must have at least forty se'ah of water; the amount of food to transmit ritual impurity is the size of an egg, and so on.

Art: A Basket of Grapes by Pierre Dupuis

Rosh Hashanah 12 - The laws of vegetables

We started this tractate saying that there are four beginnings of the year, and what each one appertains to. There is a new year (Rosh Hashanah) for vegetables, and it falls on the first of the month of Tishrei. What are the laws for vegetables? They relate to tithes.

In general, one has to give tithes of the grain that he collects in the land of Israel. The Sages extended this law to vegetables and obligated one to set aside tithes of vegetables before eating them. The obligation of tithes is year by year. Thus, if one picks a vegetable on the last day before Rosh Hashanah and then another after the sun goes down and it is already a new year, he must give the titles separately. He cannot give a tithe from the vegetables of one year for the next, nor the following year's tithe from this one.

(Incidentally, he cannot pick vegetables on the Rosh Hashanah day itself, so we assume that we are talking about a non-Jew he did it for him, and even that - on his own accord.)

Some more laws of the vegetables. The obligation to give tithes starts at the moment when one harvests it from the ground. However, one can still snack from them. Later, when one bundles the produce for the market to sell, one can no longer snack from it until he separates tithes. That is for the vegetables that are sold by bundles. If the vegetables are sold in baskets, the cutoff point for snacks is putting them in a basket.

Art: Vegetable Seller by Joachim Beuckelaer

Rosh Hashanah 11 - When was the world created?

The Holiday of Rosh Hashanah, or New Year, is celebrated on the first day of the seventh month. It is the day of judgment and introspection and also of the blowing of the shofar. This day also marks the creation of the world and of mankind. That is the opinion of Rabbi Eliezer. What is his proof? "God said, 'The earth shall send forth vegetation." This suggests that the land of covered with mature vegetation. Which month is that? It is the fall month of Tishrei.

Rabbi Yehoshuah interprets the same verse differently. "Earth send forth vegetation" means the land that is only beginning to bring forth vegetation, and this is the spring month of Nisan. So in his opinion, the world was created in Nisan.

Rabbi Eliezer places other events also in Tishrei. This month, Abraham and Jacob were born, Sarah, Rachel, and Hannah were remembered, and Joseph went out of the Egyptian prison. The text of Rosh Hashanah's prayers accepted today follows the opinion of Rabbi Eliezer.

Art: Country Spring by Alfred Sisley

Rosh Hashanah 35 – Who has to pray?

The prayer is said by everyone silently, and then it is repeated by the prayer leader. However, Rabban Gamliel states that the prayer leader's words count as the prayer for everyone so that everyone else does not have to pray. This is true throughout the year, and even more so on Rosh Hashanah when the prayer is long and was unfamiliar to many, especially when there were no printed prayer books.

The Sages asked Rabban Gamliel, "According to your opinion that the prayer leader fulfills everyone's obligation, why do people first pray silently at all?" He answers, "To give them something to do while the prayer leader reviews what he is going to say." He then asked in return, "And according to you, why does the prayer leader go down next to the ark and repeat the prayer?" The Sages told him, "For the benefit of the unlearned." He concluded, "Just as the prayer leader's prayer works for the unlearned, so it works for everyone else!"

Some say Rabban Gamliel exempted even those far away in the fields and could not attend the services. Others say that just the opposite, he exempted only them because the circumstances beyond their control stopped them from praying, but those who are in the city and attend services should say the prayers. Today, of course, there are printed prayer books, and everyone is obligated to pray using these.

Art: The Daily Prayers by Leopold Pilichowski

Rosh Hashanah 34 – How important is the shofar?

If one heard the nine required sounds of the shofar in nine hours, one sound an hour, he has nevertheless fulfilled his obligation. There is no requirement for them to be adjacent to each other. However, if he heard them simultaneously from nine people, he has not fulfilled his obligation because he could not hear each sound clearly.

It is better to be with those who know how to blow the shofar than with those who know how to pray. For example, if in one city they blow the shofar but do not know the prayers, and in another city they say the prayers but do not blow the shofar, he should go to the first city.

But this rule seems obvious; why did the teacher have to state it? After all, the shofar requirement is from the Torah. The prayer was later decreed by the Sages. Of course, we should prefer to do the Torah commandment! Still, the rule contains a novelty. Even when it is doubtful whether they will blow the shofar, one should still go and try to hear it.

Art: Square in an Ancient City by Jean Lemaire

Rosh Hashanah 33 – What notes to blow on the shofar

The order of the shofar sounds is as follows: first the long opening note (called tekiah), then three sets of three shortest notes possible (called teruah), and then another long note (tekiah).

There is also another note, a whimpering sound called “shevarim.” Three shevarim equal in length to a long sound, tekiah, and three groups for three short notes (teruah) also equal in length to the long sound. Others reverse the understanding of the broken notes, “shevarim” and “teruah.” Their disagreement is about which human emotion is this more similar to, moaning or sobbing.

If one played a long note, tekiah, two times longer than it should be – he has not gained anything since a note without interruption is still the same long note, so it is considered just one note. For example, suppose he played tekiah – teruah – tekiah and made the last note two times longer than the first. In that case, it is still not considered if he sounded the previous note in the first group and then started the second long note in the would-be second group.

Art: Blowing bubbles By Theophile Emmanuel Duverger

Rosh Hashanah 32 – The prayers of Rosh Hashanah

The prayers of Rosh Hashanah mention three themes: Kingship – the acknowledgment that God is King; Remembrances – God remembers the good deeds of the Patriarchs and of humanity; and Shofarot – mentions of the shofar throughout history. Every theme is expressed by ten phrases. When these are said, we also blow the shofar. However, often they blow the shofar later in the prayer not to disturb the people's concentration.

There is a rule that mitzvot must be perform early and without delay. How can they delay the blowing of the shofar, which is the mitzvah of the day for Rosh Hashanah? – There was once a government decree against blowing the shofar, and it was delayed, not to arouse suspicion. It was kept in place later, out of concern that a similar decree might happen again.

With all the importance of the shofar, one may not do the following to bring it on Rosh Hashanah: carry it from afar, ride a horse, dig it up from the rubble, nor swim in water for it. One may clean it with water or wine. If a child wants to play the shofar, not only he is not stopped, but they help him learn, even on Shabbat.

Art: The Rider on the Black Horse by George Frederick Watts

Rosh Hashanah 31 – What happens after the end of the world

Earlier, we mentioned that if the witnesses who saw the new moon came late, it could lead to mistakes in the sacrifices. What could go wrong was the song that the Levites used to sing, together with the sacrifice. In this, connection the Talmud enumerated which songs were performed on each day of the week and explains why it was fitting, according to what happened on this particular day in the order of creation of the world.

On Shabbat, they sang, "It is good to praise God." When a man emulates God by resting on Shabbat, he can perceive God's ways more clearly. One opinion says that this is about the last thousand years of the world when it will be destroyed, and for one day, God will reign alone (God's day is a thousand years). The other opinion says that this refers back to the first Shabbat of creation, but that the world will be destroyed not for one but two days (two thousand years). The destruction and non-existence refer only to physical activity. However, spiritually all the righteous souls will exist in harmony brought about by the absence of evil. After this, according to some, the world will exist again, with people living in the presence of God. This is discussed in depth at the end of the Tractate Sanhedrin and is mentioned here only parenthetically.

The Talmud discusses other novel laws of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai, such as making it easier for the new moon witnesses to go to the Court meeting place and not to the residence of the Head of Sanhedrin. The ninth and the last was to stop putting the strip of red wool on Yom Kippur for all to see: if people were forgiven, it turned white, but if not, they were upset – so now that they could not see it, they would not be sad.

Art: Harvesters Resting (or Ruth and Boaz) by Jean-Francois Millet

Rosh Hashanah 30 – Innovations of Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai

We mentioned how Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai outwitted the other Sages regarding the shofar. The Talmud continues with his other innovations.

He established two new laws to remember Jerusalem: waving the lulav and eating the new grain (chadash.) As a result, the possibility of the Temple being rebuilt any day or night was expressed in applicable laws. We discussed these in the Tractate Sukkah here. This is in the class of essential teachings, which are repeated in several places in the Talmud.

He also re-established accepting New Moon witnesses any time of the day. Initially, this is how the law was, but in the time of the Temple, they changed this so that the order of the sacrifices would not accidentally go awry. Now that there was no Temple, this precaution was unnecessary, and Rabbi Yochanan repealed the law. This, incidentally, agrees with the rule that even if the original reason for the law goes away, it still needs a Court ruling to be repealed.

Art: New York Harbor In Moonlight by Edward Moran

Rosh Hashanah 29 - Rosh Hashanah on Shabbat

Even though we saw Rava earlier postulate that one can simply play music on a shofar and fulfill his Rosh Hashanah shofar obligation without meaning to do so, in truth, the intention is paramount. Here is an example. "When Moses would raise his hand, Israel would prevail over Amalek, but when he lowered his hand, Amalek was stronger." But do Moses' hands make or break the battle? Instead, when Israel "gazed upward," concentrating on the purpose of the fight, they would win. Thus, Moses's hands were only a signal to Israel. Others explain that the concentration of Israel was giving Moses the strength to pray. Another example: "Make a fiery serpent and place it on a pole, so that anyone bitten by a snake would look at the serpent and live." Instead, when Israel "gazed upwards," they were healed.

Even when Rosh Hashanah occurs on Shabbat, by right, people should blow the shofar nevertheless. However, since there is a danger that someone who is not skilled in the shofar will take it in his hands and go to a Sage to learn - and carrying objects in a public area is prohibited on Shabbat - the Sages decided to cancel blowing the shofar in this case. In Jerusalem, in the times of the Temple, when the presence of many Sages would ensure that Shabbat is observed, they would blow the shofar even on Shabbat.

After the destruction of the Temple, Rabbi Yochanan ben Zakkai established to still blow the shofar on Shabbat Rosh Hashanah in the city of Yavneh, where the Sanhedrin assembled. Here is how he did it. They told him, "Let's decide first if it is proper." He answered, "Let's blow now and afterward decide." So they blew the shofar. Then later, when they said, "Let's decide now," Rabbi Yochanan answered, "It is too late - the sound was already heard, and it is improper for the Court to retract its decision at this time."

Art: View Of Jerusalem by Pierre Tetar Van Elven

Rosh Hashanah 28 - Blowing a misappropriated shofar

If one takes a horn of an animal that has been consecrated as a burnt offering, he should not use it to blow the shofar on Rosh Hashanah. However, if he did it, the following sequence of events occurs: since he misappropriated a part of the offering, he transgressed and owes a sacrifice. However, the misappropriated horn becomes his property. His blowing is now valid. By contrast, a peace offering belongs primarily to its owner, and the laws of misappropriation do not apply to it. Thus, if he blew its horn, it remained in its consecrated status, and the blowing is invalid as a mitzvah that came through transgression.

Another take from Rava: When does the misappropriation occur? - After he has blown the shofar! When he was blowing, the shofar was still the property of the Temple, and the blowing is invalid. Thus, in both cases, it is invalid. Rava then reversed his opinion: in both cases, the blowing is valid. Why? The concept of benefit does not apply to mitzvot; instead, they are a yoke on one's neck. Thus, there is really no benefit and, consequently, no transgression involved in either case and in both cases, his blowing fulfills the mitzvah.

Rava also said, "One who blows a shofar just for music's sake has nevertheless fulfilled the mitzvah since doing mitzvot does not require the intent." How could Rava say this? Didn't we learn that if one passes by the synagogue and hears the shofar, he fulfills the obligation - but only provided that he has the intent!? Answers Rava: "What kind of intent is meant? - to hear the shofar!" But that's precisely what the rule says!? - Rava meant to hear the shofar as an instrument of music and not imagine that it is a braying donkey. What about the one who blows? He certainly knows that he is not a donkey but a human, blowing a shofar. - He is trying to make barking or some other unmusical sounds and accidentally produces musical sounds.

Art: The Donkey by Eugene Joseph Verboeckhoven

Rosh Hashanah 27 – How did they blow the shofar in the Temple

On Rosh Hashanah, they used a straight shofar, its mouth plated with gold, with two trumpet blowers standing by the sides. Why straight? – To symbolize that on that day, the man should be honest and straightforward. Others, however, say that it should be bent to symbolize submission and humility. By contrast, the two trumpets were placed in the center on public fast days, and shofars, their mouths plates with silver, were on their sides. The trumpets blew more extended notes, and the shofar's sound was short because, on a fast day, the trumpet was the main sound.

There were times when authorities prohibited the blowing of the shofar on Rosh Hashanah. This gave rise to the following question: what happens when one blows the shofar in a cave? – If he hears the sound of the shofar itself, without the accompanying echo, it works, but if he hears the echo – it is not valid. Similarly, if one passes by the synagogue when they blow the shofar there – and he listens with attention – it counts for him. And the one who blows the shofar should have everyone in mind.

Art: An Officer Blowing a Trumpet By Anthonie Palamedesz

Rosh Hashanah 23 - Insecure telegraph

Initially, the Court had a quick system of announcing the New Moon: they would light torches to let the next station know, and in five hops, the news was transmitted to the whole Diaspora (really, the city of Pumbedita), which looked as if aflame with fire.

The calendar month could only have one of the two: either twenty-nine or thirty days. If the month was short (twenty-nine days), they made it known with torches, and if it was long (thirty), then nothing had to be done. However, this system was based on trust and open to hacking; the followers of a certain sect led by Baitus messed it up by hiring witnesses, with the desire to mislead the Sages. It was then established to accept testimony from known people. They also lit their own torches, to confuse the court, and when this was uncovered, the Sages instituted sending messengers.

We mentioned before that the establishment of the New Moon would also determine the dates for the Holidays. This was so important that the witnesses who would come to testify about having seen the new moon were allowed to violate Shabbat. Therefore, when they came to Jerusalem, they could be outside the area of two thousand steps which one can travel on Shabbat. They would sit in a big courtyard, established for this purpose, and enjoy festival meals prepared for them. Still, it was too restrictive, and Rabban Gamliel changed the law to allow them to go to any place in Jerusalem.

Art: New Moon by Maxfield Parrish

Rosh Hashanah 21 – Two days of fasting on Yom Kippur?

The Jews in Diaspora have the custom to observe Holidays for two days due to the following. In the times of the Sanhedrin, when the Court determined the New Moon with the witnesses' testimony, the messengers of the Court might not bring the news on time, and the exact day of the Holiday in the Diaspora was uncertain. Out of doubt, they observed two days.

By the same token, Yom Kippur should also be observed for two days or forty-eight hours of uninterrupted fast. However, since the month preceding Yom Kippur (Elul) was usually short, it was sure when the real Yom Kippur was on the calendar. Nevertheless, Rava was used to observe Yom Kippur for two days in a row. It once happened that the Court made Elul thirty days long, and Rava thus justified his suspicion. Rav Nachman was once ready to eat on the night following a complete Yom Kippur when a man said to him that the Court had decreed Elul to become long, and therefore the next day was the true Yom Kippur. Rav Nachman, frustrated, applied to himself the phrase "our pursuers were quick," meaning that the man had come too fast before Rav Nachman had a chance to eat.

Since the exact date of Passover was essential to know so as not to eat leaven (something for which a person deserves being cut off from his people), the messengers of the Court were allowed to violate Shabbat but bring the news on time. The same also applied to Yom Kippur because of the fast. What Shabbat violations were permitted? Some say – all, others – only walking too far (beyond the "techum" area of two thousand steps).

Art: Walking In The Woods by Emile Isenbart