Rosh Hashanah 20 - Did they intimidate the witnesses?

As discussed in another place, because of the difference in length in the solar year and twelve lunar months, the court would occasionally add a thirteenth month to the year. In deciding which year to intercalate, the judges had to balance multiple considerations. Since a month could be twenty-nine or thirty days, you might think that here too, the judges had a leeway. However, that would be incorrect since God told Moses, "This new moon will signify the beginning of the month for you." That meant to say that the court announces the next month based on the sighting of the moon.

However, the judges could intimidate the witnesses who saw the new moon into not testifying. When they did so, the outgoing month would be extended to the length of thirty days. They were not allowed to shorten the month by telling the witnesses to testify that they did see the moon when they actually did not. To do so would be telling them to say an outright lie.

You could also argue the opposite entirely. To tell the witnesses to suppress the testimony would be an outright lie. If the moon really was out, many other people saw it too. If the court did not sanctify the New Month, it would look like a falsehood. But to tell the witnesses to testify that they saw the moon when they, in fact, did not - that was OK. Because in this case, the people would think that the witnesses were lucky and sighted the moon before others. Thus it comes out that they could shorten the month.

Art: Man and Woman Contemplating the Moon by Caspar David Friedrich

Rosh Hashanah 19 - The court sets the time

As we learned earlier, once the court (Sanhedrin) confirms the New Moon, the day becomes the first day of the month (Rosh Chodesh.) The calendar for Shabbat is different. Shabbat comes on the seventh day, and the court has no power to accelerate or delay this. By contrast, the first of the following month comes either twenty-nine or thirty days after the previous. Depending on the court's determination, the exact date for every Holiday, such as Rosh Hashanah and Passover, may change. This setting of the date will affect the dates when people can or cannot do work. It will also affect the dates when they can or cannot eat chametz and should eat matzah.

Therefore, the court would send messengers who would travel to distant lands such as Babylonia and inform the Jewish community about the date when the New Moon was declared. There were a total of six months when this knowledge was necessary. One of them was Elul - because of Rosh Hashanah that followed that month. The other was the month of Tishrei - because of Yom Kippur on the tenth day of Tishrei. Why did they have to trouble the messengers two months in a row, seeing that the month of Elul was almost always twenty-nine days, and thus the month could be calculated directly? In setting the next month, the court took the needs of the whole nation into account. Therefore, they could make the Elul month complete thirty days and delay Rosh Hashanah on rare occasions.

Art: Crescent Moon by Andrew Wyeth

Rosh Hashanah 17 - Tolerance

There are three books open on Rosh Hashanah: the wicked, the righteous, and the intermediate. The righteous are written and sealed in the book of righteous, for life. The wicked are written and sealed in the book of the wicked, for death. The intermediate people are given ten days until Yom Kippur to improve themselves. If they succeed, they are written for life and if not - for death.

This passage conceals more than it tells. There are at least four ways to understand it. That "life" and "death" refer to the spiritual state in the World to Come. That the terms "righteous" and "wicked" do not refer to what is commonly called "good" and "bad" deeds; instead, the measure of good and bad deeds is unknown to us and is unexpected. The third approach says that "life" and "death" mean that the lifespan is expanded or shortened. Another approach is that "righteous" is a person whose merits outweigh his evil deeds. 

Notwithstanding, one who does not insist on his rights, and drops the entire matter when being offended - such a person deserves that in judgment, his bad deeds are also dropped. What is the source for that? "He (God) pardons transgression and overlooks sin." The Talmud reads this as follows: "Whose transgression does He pardon? - One who overlooks sins committed against himself."

Art: Still life with three books by Van Gogh

Rosh Hashanah 16 - When is judgement?

There are four periods of judgment. On Passover, the world is judged for grain. On Shavuot, it is judged regarding the fruit of the tree. On Rosh Hashanah, all who come into this world pass before Him, following the phrase "He that fashions their hearts, understands their deeds." The reason for knowing the times of judgment is to pray with particular intensity and purpose.

However, there are other opinions: man is judged every day, man is judged every hour, and so on. Many questions come up regarding free will, the efficacy of prayer for the sick if their fate was already decided, and so on.

There are some rules that Rabbi Yitzhak related. A person is judged according to his situation at the moment and not his future deeds. Source? Ishmael was saved in the desert because of his current plight, regardless of his future evil deeds.

Further, when one calls for judgement for his fellow, he attracts undue attention to his own sins. Sources: Sarah said, "Let God judge between me and you." Next, "And Abraham came to eulogize Sarah and weep for her."

Art: The Dismissal of Hagar by Govert Flinck 

Rosh Hashanah 15 - Etrog - a tree or a vegetable?

The etrog is similar to a tree in three ways, and it is similar to a vegetable in one way. The etrog is treated as a tree fruit for the laws of orlah: for the first three years, the fruit of any tree in Israel cannot be eaten or even used. For the laws of revai: in the fourth year, the fruit is taken to Jerusalem and eaten there. For the laws of shmita: the fruits of the seventh year are free for all.

However, the etrog is like a vegetable for the laws of tithing. That is, the tithing obligation begins at the moment when it is picked. That is because, as a vegetable, the etrog keeps absorbing water and uses it for growth all the time until it is harvested. This opinion is not unanimous, and there were different practices regarding the etrog. For Rabbi Akiva, this was a practical issue. Once, he separated the tithes two times, according to two different opinions. The Talmud discusses whose opinions these were and what did his actions mean.

Art: The lemon by Edouard Manet

Rosh Hashanah 14 - Tu Bishvat

Tu Bishvat, the 15th of the month of Shvat, marks the New Year of the trees. Why is this day significant in the life of a tree? Because by then, most of the rainy days of the season have passed. In Israel, rain does not fall throughout the year but only during the rainy season, from mid-autumn through winter. These rains cause sap to rise in the trees, and the new fruits of the tree are ready to emerge.

But wait! Didn't we say that the New Year of the trees is on the first of Tishrei? Yes, and yet there is no contradiction. The Tishrei New Year is to count the number of years in the life of a tree. For the first three years, the tree is "orlah," and its fruit cannot be used. In the fourth, its fruit is taken to Jerusalem and eaten there.

By contrast, Tu Bishvat is for separating tithes. In different years, there are different kinds of tithes. There is tithe for the poor and tithe to be eaten in Jerusalem. Tu Bishvat serves as a demarkation telling the year the fruit belongs and therefore the tithe that should be taken from it.

Art: The Large Tree by Paul Gauguin

Rosh Hashanah 13 - Rosh Hashanah for vows and the question of exact measurements

Rosh Hashanah for vows also stars on the first of the month of Tishrei. But what does this mean? Imagine that one has taken a vow which prohibits her any benefit from a particular fellow. Then she should observe it for a year, until the same month and the exact date come next year. However, if she vowed "this year," then she should not derive benefit from her friend until the first of Tishrei next year. This is true even if only one day is left before the first of Tishrei. Even those people who say that one day in a year cannot be counted a year - here they will agree to one day. That is because our vower intended to cause herself some suffering, which she has achieved even in one day.

The Talmud now goes back to the discussion of tithes. The natural place for this discussion is in the Mishnah Maaser. However, the Babylonian Talmud discusses the laws of Israeli produce only incidentally.

Grain and grapes are obligated in tithes once they grow one-third of their total growth. But did the Sages know when this happened? And in general, do we need to be so meticulous? Here the answer is yes. Otherwise, these measures would make little sense. A mikvah must have at least forty se'ah of water; the amount of food to transmit ritual impurity is the size of an egg, and so on.

Art: A Basket of Grapes by Pierre Dupuis